They concluded that red ink presented the highest toxicity, probably due to the presence of azo groups in the pigments. investigated the composition and possible toxicological effects of four commercial tattoo inks (blue, green, red, and black) on Daphnia magna and HaCaT cells they confirmed the presence of organic pigments and nanoparticles in the mixture. Indeed, they can be associated with cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and p53 activation, which occurs mainly when using red and yellow inks containing azo pigments. In humans, mainly bacterial infections and inflammatory responses are associated with tattoos, but tattoo inks have been shown to cause deleterious effects in in vitro and in vivo tests. It is estimated that significant amounts of ink are deposited in the dermis, ranging from about 0.60 to 9.42 mg/cm 2. Consequently, people who undergo extensive tattooing risk chronic exposure to the elements contained in the inks, also considering the possibility that the tattoos need to be “refreshed” over time. For these reasons, the various dangerous substances present in tattoo inks and in their decomposition could pose a risk to health not only for the skin but also for other organs. Pigment particles of tattoo suspensions have already been found in Kupffer’s cells. As a result, tattoo pigments can be found at least in the lymph nodes located next to the tattoo but can also reach the organs of excretion, such as the liver or kidneys. Furthermore, some of these substances are removed from the skin by various migrating immune cells such as dendritic cells, for example, Langerhans cells in the epidermis. Part of the injected dyes leave the skin through the wound left by the needles and with sweating, another fraction remains in the dermis as solid pigment particles, and a third fraction of ink is removed from the skin via the lymphatic system or blood vessels. Colored tattoo pigments such as PR.22 (red azo pigment) can be decomposed by solar radiation or by laser light, producing numerous decomposition products such as 2-methyl-5-nitro-aniline, which was shown to cause liver dysfunction, 4-nitro-toluene, which was shown to be genotoxic in human lymphocyte, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, which induced kidney tumors in male rats and liver tumors in male and female mice, or 2,5-dichloroaniline, which was nephrotoxic in rats. The composition of these elements varies according to the manufacturer and the color. The latest generation of tattoo inks mainly contain organic pigments (polycyclic compounds with or without the azo group) and metals such as nickel, cobalt, chromium, or lead, such as chromophores, unspecified additives, and contaminants of various types. The mixture that is introduced into the dermis, in addition to containing the pigments that give the color, also contains other substances such as vehicles (water, glycerin, and other alcoholic derivatives) and additives (surfactants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nanoparticles, and polymers). Over the years, in addition to the basic black color, numerous colors have been introduced (mainly white, red, green, yellow, and blue). Moreover, the areas of the body subjected to this technique are increasingly larger, covering the entire body as well. In recent years, we have witnessed a growth in the population of Western countries who undergo tattoos. Tattooing is a technique that involves the introduction, using a solid needle, of colored substances under the skin in order to color it permanently. Further studies needed to better understand the effects of commercial tattoo inks. We think that these effects are due to the accumulation of PR170 and, in particular, to the presence of the azoic group in the chemical structure of this pigment. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was also modified in this amphibian. Deformed embryos were observed in Xenopus, probably due to the modification of expression of genes involved in development. Our results indicate that PR170 pigment has nanoparticle dimensions, modifies the survival and the ATP-binding cassette activity, and induces oxidative stress that probably produces the observed effects in both models. Moreover, we investigated the production of ROS, antioxidant enzymes, and the expression of the ATP-binding cassette in both models. magna, we evaluated the toxicity with an immobilization test. For Xenopus, we applied the FETAX protocol analyzing survival, malformations, growth, heart rate, and the expression of genes involved in the development. We studied the effects of a commercial red ink tattoo, PR170, on Xenopus laevis embryos and Daphnia magna nauplii using concentrations of 10, 20, and 40 mg/L. Decomposition products of tattoo pigments produce numerous damages for the skin and other organs. Tattooing is a technique that introduces colored substances under the skin in order to color it permanently.
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